To create a coherent report from beginning to end, writers employ a number of strategies. The writer needs to anticipate who will be reading the report, what sections readers may choose to focus on, what the reader needs to know and finally, it must be clear what action(s) or direction the writer is recommending. Different readers will read different sections for different purposes but not always in the sequence you have presented, so it is important to structure the report so the reader can orientate themselves each time they read the report
Repetition of key information
Cohesion can be created by repeating information across reports, usually in a paraphrased form. Repetition is most obvious in the executive summary, the introduction and the conclusions. These serve to focus the reader and summarise the key information. The body of the report contains the situation's details, presents a critical analysis and includes supporting evidence. Telling the reader what you are going to tell them and then telling them improves readability.
Orientate the reader throughout the report
When introducing a new section or chapter in a report it is helpful to orientate the reader to the purpose and structure of the section. This only needs to be a couple of sentences. Here is an example:
Section 2. Establishing the context
To enable the accurate identification and analysis of risks, the risk management context needs to be defined and clearly understood. To assist the reader in understanding the outcomes of the assessment, Section 2 includes a summary of the key features of the context.
2.1 Angola's history…
Place lists, tables and figures in the context of the report
This is achieved by the use of introductory and concluding statements. Lists, tables and figures cannot be expected to 'speak for themselves'. Do not assume the reader will form the same conclusions about the information as you or that the point you wish to make is 'obvious'.
Introduce the list, table or figure and comment upon the significance of the information. Consider why it is important that you include the list, table or figure in the report. State what you want the reader to notice or keep in mind about the information in the list or table you present.
Activity 1
Here is an example of a poor use of a bullet lists. What changes would you suggest?
1.1.2 Corporate context
The review of company's strength and weaknesses in relation to its ability to successfully implement the long term strategic objectives.Strengths
- Financially sound
- Well established management
- Decentralised and un-bureaucratic management
- Largest cocoa processing factories in Indonesia
- Little competition within Indonesia
- Well established reputation and public image
Weaknesses
- Culture and working attitude of local employees may not be aligned to Mar's Five principles
- Raw material quality is inconsistent due to reliance on traditional farming and seasonal factors
See answer:
The introductory sentence is an incomplete sentence. There is no clear point to the information. Are the strengths and weaknesses of equal importance?
Here is a possible rewording:
1.1.2 Corporate Context
To assess Effem Indonesia Pty Ltd's long-term strategic objectives, factors that impact favourably and unfavourably are presented. These include strengths and weaknesses, opportunity and threat, stakeholders and communication policies, competitors and external factors.
Strengths
- Financially sound
- Well established management
- Decentralized and un-bureaucratic management
- Largest cocoa processing factories in Indonesia
- Little competition within Indonesia
- Well established reputation and public image
Weaknesses
- Culture and working attitude of local employees may not be aligned to Mar's Five Principles
- Raw material quality is inconsistent due to reliance on traditional farming and seasonal factors
While the company appears to be well established and has an organizational structure that allows for flexibility in local regions, the ongoing problems with raw materials and employee work culture have the potential for serious damage to the company's operations.
Cohesion in paragraphs
Cohesion is achieved within a paragraph by the structure of the paragraph and the way the sentences link and flow.
Activity 2
Before reading about cohesion in paragraphs, reflect on how much you already know about paragraphs.
Read the following paragraph. What do you think the writer has done well? How could the paragraph be improved?
Paragraph:
The small-scale packaging facility in Makassar has been established since April 2000 and ongoing trials have been performed since then and the first single packs batch was produced on August 2000. On the other hand, the Medium-scale packaging facility in Medan, North Sumatra, has just been established in early 2001 after learning from experiences in Makassar and is planned to supply ABC Tinny for market research in Jakarta.
See answers:
- Not a very clear paragraph.
- No clear point to the paragraph- needs a topic sentence.
- Ideas not linking or flowing well. Incorrect use of transition words.
- Run on sentences.
- Relying on coordinating clauses rather than complex / subordinate clauses.
Paragraph structure
For clear structure a paragraph usually includes a topic sentence, supporting sentences and, if appropriate, a concluding sentence. Numbered lists and bullet points can be incorporated into a paragraph as well.
A paragraph presents a single idea with all the information contained working to express that idea as clearly as possible. The main idea you wish to communicate is expressed in a topic sentence and this is usually the first sentence of a paragraph. However, writers can choose to place the topic sentence as the second or even the last sentence. All other sentences are supporting sentences and serve to elaborate the main idea presented in the topic sentence. This can be achieved by; describing, explaining, giving reasons, giving examples, referring to other authorities etc. Concluding sentences are appropriate for long paragraphs or after a series of paragraphs elaborating on a topic have been presented. Concluding sentences restate and paraphrase the main idea.
Example of a well structured paragraph:
(1) As the project proceeds, there is a tendency for the balance of control to shift steadily in favour of the host country/government. (2) After exploration is completed, the economic risks associated with the specific project are reduced sharply. (3) This decreases the leverage of the company during the post exploration phrase. (4) Similarly, after construction is complete and production has begun, the relative bargaining strength of the company tends to slip even more.
See comments:
- Clear topic sentence in sentence 1.
- The supporting sentences (2,3,4) explain why the balance of control shifts – cause and effect reasoning is used.
Link and flow in paragraphs
A paragraph is not a series of unrelated sentences. Two ways that cohesion can be achieved are by considering how the beginnings (Theme) and ends (Rheme) of clauses and sentences connect, and how transition words show relationships between ideas.
Example of Theme and Rheme creating cohesion
Efferm Indonesia Pty Ltd is an affiliated company of Mars Incorporated. It is located in South Sulawesi, Indonesia. It was established in 1996 as a cocoa bean processing company. Its main products are cocoa butter and cocoa powder, which are exported to Mars' confectionery factories in Australia.
See comments:
The beginning of each sentence is a direct link back to the subject of the first sentence.
Example of Theme and Rheme creating cohesion
It may seem that the government is trying to make economic reforms, but there is the risk that they do not follow them through. This is largely due to the lack of control over public spending and the high level of corruption in the country.
See comments:
The idea presented at the end of the first sentence is continued and expanded in the following sentence.
Transition words are like 'Velcro' in your writing. Transition words show what the relationships are between ideas and information. Transition words includes words and phrases such as: in addition, however, thus, due to, for example, and so on. See a list of transition words.
Example of transition words creating cohesion
Due to the high level of uncertainty in Angolan politics, it was determined that in each of the scenarios, the consequence would remain the same. However, it was the likelihood of each event occurring that would be quite different for each scenario.
See comments:
- Cause and effect relationships created in sentence 1.
- Sentence 2 presents a contrasting conditional aspect.
Repetition of key vocabulary and key concepts
Cohesion can also be created in the recycling of information. This is achieved by repetition and the use of synonymous words which assists the writer and the reader to stay focused on the main topics of the text.
Activity: Paragraph structure
Now that you have read about cohesion in paragraphs and looked at the examples, can you locate the cohesive elements of a paragraph in these 2 examples?
Paragraph 1
Two assumptions were made for the risk assessment. Firstly, that any significant findings or reports from a particular source had to be verified from two other sources; for example, a statement made by the Angolan government had to be reflected by press, embassies or humanitarian agencies. Secondly, identified risks were considered as having equal value or weighting in the analysis phase of the risk assessment.
See answers:
- Transition words/phrases are in Blue
- The topic sentence is Red
- The paragraph is listing information.
- There is no argumentation or reason given - this paragraph is just stating the facts.
Two assumptions were made for the risk assessment.Firstly, that any significant findings or reports from a particular source had to be verified from two other sources ; for example, a statement made by the Angolan government had to be reflected by press, embassies or humanitarian agencies. Secondly, identified risks were considered as having equal value or weighting in the analysis phase of the risk assessment
Paragraph 2
All four of the previously mentioned trends in government control over foreign investors are painfully evident in the world's petroleum industry. Host governments of all political stances and states ranging from developed to third world, have intervened to play a larger, controlling role in the development and disposition of their petroleum. When it comes to regulating foreign involvement in a state's petroleum, all political systems, whether they be democratic, autocratic, capitalist or socialist, pursue similar goals of maximising domestic economic returns and political control
See answers:
The paragraph has a link to previous information in the text.
- The topic sentence is Blue - it appears to function as a concluding sentence as well.
- Transition words/phrases are in Red.
- Repetition and synonymous words are in italics(not all are highlighted).
- The use of the words 'painfully evident' indicates the writer's opinion of the situation.
All four of the previously mentioned trends in government control over foreign investors are painfully evident in the world's petroleum industry. Host governments of all political stances, and states ranging from developed to third world, have intervened to play a larger, controlling role in the development and disposition of their petroleum. When it comes to regulating foreign involvement in a state's petroleum, all political systems, whether they be democratic, autocratic, capitalist or socialist, pursue similar goals of maximizing domestic economic returns and political control.
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